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=//** Standpoint Theory **//=

// by Lester Aslarona, Sade Burrell, Jullianne Legaspi, Muna Mahamoud, Eleanore Nazal, and Oeivind Presthus. //

1 - Overview of the Standpoint Theory.
The standpoint theory was created by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and derived from the postmodern era. A standpoint is a place from which to view the world that determines what we focus on as well as what is obscured from us. “The standpoint theory states that the predominant culture in which all groups exist is not experienced in the same way by all persons or groups”. Many feminist sociologists such as Sandra Harding and Julia Wood agreed with the Marxist approach that only certain people from an individual group are capable of understanding the flaws in their group. An outsider to the situation can’t accurately depict or begin to solve the problems that are foreign to them.

In the modern era the predominate culture was primary responsible for health, financial, educational, and any other forms of research that did not effect them nor could they understand. The views of the predominate group were given more legitimacy then those from the marginalized group. The standpoint theory took away from minorities the ability to view the clearer picture of what was going on in their own world, instead misconceptions and inaccurate information was created to misconstrue their view. This inaccurate view was then pumped into to the different information channels in society such as the media, newspapers, magazines, and etc. The Standpoint Theory is used to accurately portray the point of view of the individual is experiencing in a particular situation.

The bias in gender studies puts women and other subordinate groups at a disadvantage that they will have to face every single day of their lives. Research studies will un-proportionately favor the dominate group leaving women with less alternatives to their illnesses making them more prone to sickness due to lack of information and resources. The feminist movement started around the same time as standpoint theory, backing women with more knowledge to better their lives knowledge the dominant group did not care or find important enough to focus on. (Contributed by Muna)

2 - Important concepts and how they relate to each other. How has the theory changed over time?
Standpoint Theory has many different concepts, but specifically it addresses four main concepts. The four main concepts are: A standpoint influences how the people adopting to it’s socially construct the world, Social group membership affects people’s standpoints, the inequalities of different social groups create differences in their standpoints and all standpoints are partial. All four of these concepts relate to each other in the sense of ones surroundings or an influence dictates their standpoint or the way they view the world. Their standpoint is always being changing due to the ongoing change in our society. The more change we have in a society, the more our standpoint is affected.

 Philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel developed the origins of the Standpoint Theory in which he initially used the inequalities of the relationship between slaves and their Masters. Hegel argues groups in positions of lesser power have more of a broad and accurate view on society than those who are privileged. Later, the theory was Karl Marx would use the works of Hegel to eventually impose his own views and studies on the Standpoint theory. Currently the Standpoint Theory has evolved into the feminist standpoint theory and has been used for equality of women across the globe. As stated, Standpoint Theory is now commonly being used for the purpose of feminist activist. Although the theory is still being used, it's main purpose was to demonstrate the inequalities amongst all. (Contributed by Sade Burrell)

3 - Summarized Articles from Individual Group Members:
**Summary Article 1: By Lester**

Insert text here.

Summary Article 2: By Sade
“Tattoos as Worldviews: A Journey into Tattoo Communications Using Standpoint Theory” is an article which discusses the importance of tattooing and how valuable its meaning is to our current society.The purpose of the study was to show the massive up rise in tattooing and how it is now being used as a form of communication.. People are now using tattoos as a way of communication and as a way to express their feelings or heritage.The research question concluded as the following: for whatever reasons, tattoos are the new way of our current generation communicating, why is this form of communication being used and what is its meaning?. The author states, “Tattoos are relevant forms of nonverbal communication, they are ‘scars that speak,’ and yet demand no reply: they are an assertion of what is, frozen in the flesh (Benson, 2000).” It is also stated that if choosing tattoos as a communication tool, talking about them that we are intimately connected in a relationship with a tattooed person and their standpoint. A qualitative method of interviewing was used to uncover the meanings tattoos. An even amount of men and women at the University of West Texas who age ranged from 20 to 75 volunteered to participate in the study. They were asked a series of survey questions and they were later interviewed. The study concluded that over 19% of the people interviewed has tattoos while 14% planned on getting a tattoo in the future. When asked why they preferred tattoo, one answered, "I wasn’t thinking about it, you know, it was just kind of a spontaneous deal,anything you could do then (to be cool), you just did it, and I did it".

“Standpoint theory gives authority to people’s own voice and therefore is an effective tool to use in the study of tattoos as verbs, exploring the action and reaction of this communication phenomenon. It is only through dialogue that a mutual understanding of tattoos can occur”. The author is using Standpoint Theory to influence the study by demonstrating how ones view of the world is being shown to others. Some may argue that this is a form of nonverbal communication, but the fact is, its still a form of communicating, even if it’s different than what is considered the norm of how to communicate. The study ultimately determines more people are using this form of communicating because of their cultural background, the people they are around,or because society is more accepting of their expressive ways of communicating.

Aguilar, T. (2007). Tattoos as worldviews: A journey into Tattoo Communications using Standpoint Theory. 47.
 * http://tinyurl.com/5u4plyu**

Always Single Japanese Women Through Interpersonal Relationships
In the article, "Always Single Japanese Women Through Interpersonal Relationships, " the author attempts to reveal the identities of single Japanese women while basing research on the standpoint theory. The research analyzed themes that were similar in the different standpoint of various single women. Never marrying in Japan is considered nontraditional and is looked down upon by others in society. This creates an expression that it is in the best interest of woman to get married. Using the standpoint theory the article tries to shed understanding on identities that have been ignored. It provides a unique perspective on a culture that emphasizes social conformity.

The study was conducted by interviewing thirty always single Japanese women. Two interviews were conducted with four years in between each interview. The interviews were face-to-face in-depth interviews that investigated personal relations and identities. The following research questions were proposed; "What kind of interpersonal relationships did always single women engage in?", "What role do these interpersonal relationships play in the construction of women's identities?" and "How do interpersonal relationships of these women evolve over time?"(Maeda, & Hecht, 2009). Participants in the study were single Japanese women between the ages of 30 and 56 years old. They held varying degrees of education ranging from high school degrees to graduate degrees. Most women lived with their parents and worked at the time of the interview. The results of the research found that three underlying themes that emerged from the first interview and were confirmed by the second interview. The three themes were family dependency, social support and relational issues. In addition the interview emphasized three kinds of interpersonal relationships; women's family relationships, romantic relationships, and social relationships with other women. Family relationships have a significant impact on single women identities. Many women in the study tended to be dependent on their family while also having the family depend on them. Families offered emotional and financial support and sometimes did not want their daughter to live too far from them. The woman also faced various obstacles in their romantic relationships like the lack of opportunity to meet other people and fear of commitment.

What the research found was that many women recognized and accepted various lifestyles and relationships. They found that although they experience unconventional ways of living they still serve an important role of someone's life. The author uses standpoint theory to help us to understand the viewpoint of single Japanese woman and how they are able to see a different ways of living. The standpoint theory helps to provide alternative insight and allows us to understand different ways in which people live. Through this article we have learned to accept alternative identities and perspectives.

Maeda, E, & Hecht, Michael. (2009). Standpoint of always-single Japanese women through interpersonal relationships. //Conference Papers -- International Communication Association;//, //1-28//. Retrieved from **http://tinyurl.com/47b2hcv**

**Summary Article 4: By Muna**

Insert text here.

Summary Article 5: By Eleanore

 * Study: __The power of women as nurses in South Africa__**

The purpose of the study was to measure the meaning and experiences of power in their daily lives. By power, it can be determined by the use of power itself, powerlessness, and/ or powerfulness that they encounter as a registered nurse in a rural area as well in addition to their home life. This is where the standpoint theory takes place because it measures the effects of these nurses who are working in a rural area that have professions that are accepted or not by the society in which they live and work.

The theoretical background or methodology of this study indicates that the experiences of one’s life are marginalized by race, class, and gender. With this, the researchers can gather information as well as testimonies as to how day to day activity can affect the use of power on all types of levels.

The people who were being studied in this group were women who were registered nurses from South Africa in a rural area known as KwaZulu-Natal. It is one of the second largest of nine provinces in South Africa. The study consisted of 3 interviews in which 1.) the researcher described purpose, procedure, and ethical guidelines to make sharing their testimonies on an exceptional comfort level 2.) the researcher revisited the first interview with the participant and then incorporated the subject of power and the meaning as well as experiences of power, powerlessness, and powerfulness in addition to being a women, nurse and a part of the nursing profession and 3.) the researcher reflected back on the last two interviews then included how these women dealt with their behavior and whether or not it transformed to be empowering at two levels, personal and collective.

In the final analysis of this study it was argued that powerlessness was embedded in the daily lives of these women as nurses as expressed in the hierarchical relations of class, gender, race, and rurality (van der Merwe, 1999). The author also mentioned that these nurses perceived themselves belonging to a powerless group therefore they saw limited ways of empowerment from their perspective. In terms of class, they were vulnerable to being oppressed. Those who are oppressed face feelings of powerlessness in addition to depression, alienation, and hostility. Within the context of their situation, these nurses may believe that power manages people rather than people managing power (Marquis & Huston, 1994). Gender was also a factor due to women play dual roles in their work environment as well as in the home. As women, they needed to maintain the household while maintaining themselves for the most part. While having many roles, these women simply did not have a choice, yet they were obligated to carry out these roles for the sake of her own family and her husband. In addition, race contributed to the powerlessness of these women due to the fact that these women were African and that the study was being conducted by a white researcher. Lastly, the locality of the women took place in a rural setting where they lived their day to day lives and worked. They obviously had limited access which meant limited opportunities. Educational opportunities were scarce and they expressed their stress regarding violence and aggressive political activities within the scope of their area.

The study implied powerlessness based on these women in general and as nurses in terms of race, class, gender, and locality. These women had different standpoints according to the society in which they lived. They were looked down upon due to the fact that they lived in a rural area, therefore their standpoint was not as strong compared to a South African nurse who lived and worked in an urban area. As you can see, these are real life situations that were incorporated into a study. The feminist standpoint theory is fairly clear in this study and this theory can evolve not only for feminist, but also to those who are seeking social equality.

** http://web.ebscohost.com.libproxy.sdsu.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?hid=113&sid=07b4b848-f407-41e9-be01-f5bc86959f20%40sessionmgr112&vid=1 **
 * van der Merwe, Anita S., (1999). The power of women as nurses in South Africa.** //**Journal of Advanced Nursing, 30(6),1272-1279.**//

"Redefining Hijab: American Muslim Women's Standpoint on Veiling"
//Written by Oeivind Presthus.//

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«Redefining Hijab: American Muslim Women’s Standpoints on Veiling» is an article discussing why the hijab functions beneficially in the lives of American Muslim women. The meaning of this study is to study and understand how Muslim women experience the functions of hijab in their lives, and a sample of 13 women participated in this study. The author wants to explore the functions of hijab from the standpoints of Muslim women in America. The general idea is that Muslim women use Hijab because they are oppressed, but the author believe that the women using hijab have different understandings of how hijab functions in their lives. =====

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The analysis of the interviews with the women revealed six major functions of hijab in the lives of Muslim women, or at least for those participating in this study. The first one is that use of veils //defines Muslim identity,// the hijab functions as a visible marker of one’s identity as a Muslim. The second advantage is that the veil functions as a reminder to the women to guard their behavior so that their lives please God, the veil becomes a //behavior check.// The third plus is that by wearing a veil and a loose dress that accompanies it, the women feel they also //resist objectification and sexual exploitation// by men. The women says that they feel more valued as a person, and that «it forces men to look beyond just the physical and see who you are». The Muslim women also feel that the veil //affords more respect.// They admit that the hijab has caused some discrimination, but all of them agree that they fell more respect from both Muslim and non-Muslim men because they wear the veil. Using a hijab also help the women //preserve intimate relationships// because the hijab provides the women with greater control over their bodies, and gives them the possibility to spare their beauty for the man they loves. The last major function of the hijab found in this study is that it’s a //source of freedom.// The women in this study said that wearing a veil provides them with the freedom, or liberation, from the restrictions normally placed on women’s appearance. The hijab means freedom to not conforming to fashion standards in American society that exploit women. =====

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As you can see, in this study the women claim to be far from oppressed when they wear a hijab. The fact is that they identifies the veil as serving multiple useful and empowering functions in their lives. The author states that «these findings reveal much greater depth behind American women’s choice to wear hijab». Set into context with the standpoint theory, I would say that wearing a hijab reflects this women’s standpoints. Using the standpoint theory offers a way for us to understand that wearing a veil is a choice of life this women supports because they are able to see the advantages of using a hijab, that many people from the western world do not see in the same way. =====


 * Droogsma, Rachel A.: Redefining Hijab: American Muslim Women's Standpoints on Veiling //(2007) Journal of Applied Communication Research:// Vol. 35, No. 3, August 2007, pages 294 - 319. **

**4 - Our group assessment on the current state of the theory, new thoughts and developments of the theory.**

The Standpoint Theory has currently evolved into a feminist standpoint theory due to the events, experiences, and inequalities that women have encountered during the past years. For feminist standpoint theory, both the representation of a feminist perspective and its “truth” are reached through philosophical and political struggle (Hennessy, 1993). The standpoint theory continues to evolve from a feminist perspective in order for women to overcome oppression and to essentially give them a voice in which they can express themselves either verbally or nonverbally.

Society is gradually accepting women from their individual standpoints such as women running for president or holding fairly high executive positions from working women instead of being housewives. The feminist standpoint theory suggests that all women do not have to settle for inferior positions in their daily lives. Instead, they have the will and right to be as equally powerful as men. Although society underestimates women and their ability to be powerful, they also disregard their actions, words, and successes. In regards to the feminist standpoint theory, women are able to strive for social equality no matter what their race, class, or gender might be.

As the standpoint theory continues to bring on new direction for feminists, there are endless possibilities that the standpoint theory can transform into an array of social equalities that many other people experience. It can distribute power to those whom are disabled either physically or mentally, homosexuals in society, minorities, etc. The point is that the standpoint theory gives structure to individuals that can personally modify their own standpoints in society to prove equality across the world.

References:
- Links to the source of the sample case study that each of us have written a summary on.

**Sade Burrell: http://tinyurl.com/5u4plyu** **http://users.ipfw.edu/lakes/Standpoint%20Theory.html**

**Eleanore Nazal: http://web.ebscohost.com.libproxy.sdsu.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?hid=113&sid=07b4b848-f407-41e9-be01-f5bc86959f20%40sessionmgr112&vid=1  **

** Jullianne Legaspi:  ** **http://tinyurl.com/47b2hcv**

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